Ninth Circuit Holds Class Action Waivers in Employment Agreements Violate the National Labor Relations Act

A panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals held 2-1 that class action waivers in arbitration agreements violate the National Labor Relations Act.

In an opinion by Chief Judge Sidney Thomas, the divided panel's majority decided that the National Labor Relations Board correctly decided that class action waivers violate the National Labor Relations Act because they require employees to give up "concerted activity" - joining together in a group to address wages, hours, and other terms and conditions of employment.

The majority's rationale is that a class action waiver is a waiver of the right to act in concert - a substantive right under the NLRA. Therefore, the employee is not merely waiving the right to a class action; the employee is waiving the right to section 7 of the Act.  And that's not legal.  Because it's not legal, the arbitration provision is not enforceable, notwithstanding the Federal Arbitration Act.
The Court took special pains to emphasize that it was not holding that a class action waiver is illegal because it requires arbitration.  The opinion emphasizes that any class action waiver - even one that did not require arbitration at all - would be illegal.

So, never mind that

- Many employees who might be subject to an arbitration agreement with a class action waiver,  such as supervisors,  are not covered by the NLRA;
- Many employees who might be subject to an arbitration agreement with a class action waiver are former employees who are not engaging in protected, concerted activity to improve working conditions;
- There was no such thing as a class action in 1937 when Congress passed the NLRA;
- a class action is a procedural tool, the Supreme Court has held, not a substantive right;
- a class action is frequently asserted by one employee on behalf of a putative class, the members of which have no rights as parties and often do not even know someone filed the lawsuit;
- The Fifth, Second, and Eighth Circuits, and the California Supreme Court for that matter, have held that the NLRB got it wrong; and
- The Supreme Court has held that class action practice is incompatible with arbitration. 

None of that makes any difference. Judge Ikuta discussed some of these points and others in her dissent.

The court left open the possibility that the parties could arbitrate the class action if the employer desired.  The court also held that nothing in the decision limited arbitration of the claims asserted in the case.  The employees, however, would not be precluded from proceeding as a putative class if the district court decides to "sever" the class waiver.

So, the Supreme Court is going to have to take a look at this issue.  Until then, class action waivers are on shaky ground in the 9th Circuit.

Two things, however:

1. The California Supreme Court has held that the NLRB was wrong and the NLRA does not preclude class waivers.  So, state courts probably have to follow the California Supreme Court unless or until that Court changes its mind.

2. The Ninth Circuit held in Johnmohammadi v. Bloomingdale's, Inc. 755 F.3d 1072 (9th Cir. 2014), that an employer does not violate the NLRA when it gives employees the chance to opt-out of an arbitration agreement containing a class waiver.  Here's what the Court said:

We can quickly dismiss any notion that Bloomingdale’s coerced Johnmohammadi into waiving her right to file a class action. Bloomingdale’s did not require her to accept a class- action waiver as a condition of employment, as was true in In re D.R. Horton, Inc., 357 N.L.R.B. No. 184, 2012 WL 36274 (Jan. 3, 2012), enforcement denied in part, 737 F.3d 344 (5th Cir. 2013). Bloomingdale’s gave her the option of participating in its dispute resolution program, which would require her to arbitrate any employment-related disputes on an individual basis. As the district court found,
Johnmohammadi was fully informed about the consequences of making that election, and she did so free of any express or implied threats of termination or retaliation . . . 

Therefore, at least in the 9th Circuit, and at least for now, it is necessary to include an opt-out provision and to explain the consequences of the arbitration provision containing a class waiver.  Good drafting, therefore, can save the class waiver. 

This case is Morris v. Ernst & Young LLP and the opinion is here. 

Arbitration Class Action Waivers - Trouble Brewing?

There are pros and cons associated with mandatory arbitration agreements.  Yes, everybody knows that.  One of the biggest "pros" is that an employer can insist that employees arbitrate only individual claims, not class claims.  Or can it?  That's what may be under re-consideration...

The U.S. Supreme Court supposedly settled this issue some years ago in AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion, 563 U.S. 333, 333, 131 S. Ct. 1740, 1742 (2011).  There, the Court, in a nutshell, held:

the overarching purpose of the FAA, evident in the text of §§ 2, 3, and 4, is to ensure the enforcement of arbitration agreements according to their terms so as to facilitate streamlined proceedings. Requiring the availability of classwide arbitration interferes with fundamental attributes of arbitration and thus creates a scheme inconsistent with the FAA.

The Supreme Court in Concepcion expressly invalidated a line of California precedent, in which the California courts had held that class action waivers in arbitration agreements were unconscionable and void against public policy.

The California Supreme Court recognized Concepcion's rule in its landmark Iskanian ruling:

Concepcion held that the FAA does prevent states from mandating or promoting procedures incompatible with arbitration. The Gentry rule runs afoul of this latter principle. We thus conclude in light of Concepcion that the FAA preempts the Gentry rule.

Iskanian v. CLS Transp. L.A., LLC, 59 Cal. 4th 348, 366, 173 Cal. Rptr. 3d 289, 299, 327 P.3d 129, 137 (2014)

Why are we walking down memory lane?  Hang in there...

Because the National Labor Relations Board waded into this issue and decided in a case called D.R. Horton, 357 N.L.R.B. 2277 (2012), that class action waivers are unlawful under the National Labor Relations Act, even if the Federal Arbitration Act preempts state laws prohibiting them.  The Federal Arbitration Act, a federal law, does not preempt the National Labor Relations Act, a federal law.  The NLRB's rationale is that a class action is a form of "protected concerted activity" and that requiring employees to waive the right to sue as a class is an unlawful waiver.  

The Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit disagreed with the Board and did not enforce its opinion in D.R. Horton. That means the decision was not binding and could not be used as precedent.  The California Supreme Court also rejected the Board's rationale in Iskanian: 

We thus conclude, in light of the FAA's “‘liberal federal policy favoring arbitration’” (Concepcion, supra, 563 U.S. at p.___ [131 S. Ct. at p. 1745]), that sections 7 and 8 of the NLRA do not represent “ ‘a contrary congressional command’ ” overriding the FAA's mandate (CompuCredit Corp. v. Greenwood, supra, 565 U.S. at p. ___ [132 S. Ct. at p. 669]). This conclusion is consistent with the judgment of all the federal circuit courts and most of the federal district courts that have considered the issue.

So, the NLRB thing was a big yawn, and no one cares because everybody is non-union, right?  Well, no. The NLRB's rules apply to non-union employers too, but D.R. Horton wasn't getting a lot of play.  Until now.

The Seventh Circuit has just come down in favor of the NLRB's position, in a case involving a non-union employer's motion to compel arbitration in federal court.  In Lewis v. Epic Sys. Corp., No. 15-2997, 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 9638, at *1 (7th Cir. May 26, 2016), the court of appeals refused to enforce Epic Systems's arbitration agreement because it contained a class action waiver.  

The court held that the waiver violated the National Labor Relations Act:

Epic's clause runs straight into the teeth of Section 7. The provision prohibits any collective, representative, [12] or class legal proceeding. Section 7 rovides that "[e]mployees shall have the right to ... engage in ... concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection." 29 U.S.C. § 157. A collective, representative, or class legal proceeding is just such a "concerted activit[y]." See Eastex, 437 U.S. at 566; Brady, 644 F.3d at 673; D. R. Horton, 357 N.L.R.B. 2277, at 2278. Under Section 8, any employer action that "interfere[s] with, restrain[s], or coerce[s] employees in the exercise of the rights guaranteed in [Section 7]" constitutes an "unfair labor practice." 29 U.S.C. § 158(a)(1). Contracts that stipulate away employees' Section 7 rights or otherwise require actions unlawful under the NRLA are unenforceable.

Lewis v. Epic Sys. Corp., No. 15-2997, 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 9638, at *11-12 (7th Cir. May 26, 2016)

The Seventh Circuit's decision sets up a circuit split and a chance for the U.S. Supreme Court to consider whether class action waivers violate the NLRA or not.  The Seventh Circuit's decision also gives the NLRB the impetus to bring unfair labor practice charges against employers that maintain class action waivers in their arbitration agreements, which could result in invalidation of those agreements down the road. 

So, employers with class action waivers, be aware that challenges to these agreements may come as a result of the NLRB's position in D.R. Horton, especially given the Seventh Circuit's recent endorsement.  We will have to see if the Seventh Circuit's decision is taken up for review by the U.S. Supreme Court.   The court already decided not to hear it en banc.

Court of Appeal Saves Electronically Signed Arbitration Agreement - Relevant to Other Electronic Acknowledgements Too

Wait, don't skip this one yet. It's not just another arbitration case. If your business uses electronic acknowledgments of policies, handbooks or employment agreements (commissions, confidentiality agreements, etc.), it's worth a read.

In this case, Doctor Espejo sued Kaiser for wrongful termination. The facts aren't important.  At the beginning of employment, Kaiser sent the doctor an email containing electronic links to his offer letter, the dispute resolution procedures (arbitration agreement), "rules and regulations," and a benefits handbook. He accepted his offer and the other materials via an electronic signature that he applied after clicking the links, signing in and following procedures.

The issue that lawyers have to deal with, dear HR and company management, is how to prove that these things happened in litigation.  And that problem came up when Kaiser tried to compel Dr. Espejo to arbitrate.

The trial court rejected Kaiser's attempt to prove that Dr. Espejo signed his arbitration agreement. But the trial court did so because it refused to rely on a declaration that Kaiser submitted after Kaiser had filed its initial Petition to Compel Arbitration.  (Kaiser submitted the additional declaration in response to a new court decision that had come down, trying to satisfy its evidentiary burden.)  The Court of Appeal decided the trial court should have accepted Kaiser's declaration.

With that out of the way, the Court of Appeal made two significant rulings. One applies in the context of compelling arbitration. But one is more generally applicable to proving that electronically signed documents are "authentic" and admissible evidence.

First, the Court of Appeal decided that a party's initial burden on a Petition to Compel arbitration does not include fully "authenticating" an arbitration agreement, unless the other side disputes the agreement is authentic in its opposition.

we conclude that defendants here met their initial burden by attaching to their petition a copy of the purported arbitration agreement bearing Espejo’s electronic signature. Once Espejo challenged the validity of that signature in his opposition, defendants were then required to establish by a preponderance of the evidence that the signature was authentic.

That's good news unless, as in this case, the employee is going to deny electronically signing the document.  Doctor Espejo recalled electronically signing his offer letter, but he did not remember authorizing his electronic signature on the other documents.  So, as it says above, Kaiser then had to prove authenticity by a preponderance of the evidence. This issue will arise a lot in other contexts, such as handbook receipts, commission plans, etc.  How does one prove to a court that an electronic acknowledgment is real?  Remember, that's the only reason employers have these sign-offs - in case of litigation.  So, it pays to have a way of proving they are valid.

The Court of Appeal reviewed the law in this area and approved the declaration that Kaiser submitted.  To prove an electronic signature is valid under Civil Code section 1633.9, subd. (a), it is necessary to prove it is the "act of the person" whom you want to establish signed the document.  The Court of Appeal reviewed Kaiser's declaration and decided it was sufficient to do so:

Tellez detailed SCPMG’s security precautions regarding transmission and use of an applicant’s unique user name and password, as well as the steps an applicant would have to take to place his or her name on the signature line of the employment agreement and the DRP. Based on this procedure, she concluded that the “name Jay Baniaga Espejo could have only been placed on the signature pages of the employment agreement and the DRP by someone using Dr. Espejo’s unique user name and password. . . . [¶] Given this process for signing documents and protecting the privacy of the information with unique and private user names and passwords, the electronic signature was made by Dr. Espejo” on the employment agreement and the DRP at the date, time, and IP address listed on the documents. These details satisfactorily meet the requirements articulated in Ruiz and establish that the electronic signature on the DRP was “the act of” Espejo (Civ. Code, § 1633.9, subd. (a)), and therefore provide the necessary factual details to properly authenticate the document.

So, to prove electronic signatures depict the acknowledgment of the person whom the company wants to say signed the document, the following is necessary:

- a company witness has to know how the electronic signature process works and has to be able to explain it in a declaration.  The vendor has to have a white paper explaining the process in plain English, and training for HR and IT;

- the electronic signature process has to have sufficient security safeguards to allow a court to find that it is more likely than not the signature of the person you want it to be.  It always helps to have an email confirmation of the signing event sent to the email user with a return receipt; and

- the lawyer has to know how to draft a proper declaration of a person who can lay foundation regarding knowledge of how the process works and how it was applied to the plaintiff.  (You're welcome).

This case is Espejo v. Southern California Permanente Medical Group and the opinion is here.

California Supreme Court Upholds Arbitration Agreement Against Unconscionability Claim

Baltazar v. Forever 21, Inc. is one of the older employment cases on the California Supreme Court's docket. It has now been put to rest. And the employer came out the winner via a unanimous Court.  Justice Kruger wrote the opinion.

This is another arbitration case, focusing on whether an employer's agreement to arbitrate was "unconscionable" because it included certain provisions.  First, the Court does a nice job of summarizing its recent arbitration cases so that practitioners can one-stop shop  for case law. Thank you Supreme Court. 

When evaluating arbitration agreements, the courts look for procedural and substantive unconscionability. The more procedural unconsionability they find, the less substantive unconscionability they need to discern.  And vice versa.  They call this the "sliding scale."

Procedural Unconscionability

So, the first piece of business the Court addressed is the issue of "procedural unconscionability." That is, whether the arbitration agreement was "take it or leave it" and whether it was obtained via trick or surprise.

Now, as a practical matter, nearly every employment arbitration agreement has some degree of "procedural" unconscionability, because they are almost always "take it or leave it," or "contracts of adhesion."  And here's where the court explained that it will not count an "adhesion" contract as a significant amount of procedural unconscionability unless there is something more - evidence that the employer hid the agreement, or lied to the employee.   

In this case, Baltazar knew about the agreement And she even tried to refuse to sign it.  The employer told her if she did not sign, she would have no job.  The agreement was presented to her in a straight-forward way. Therefore, the court said it was a plain-old adhesion contract. 

The Court also addressed the argument that the employer did not attache the AAA rules to the arbitration contract as evidence of procedural unconscionability. The Court said that there was nothing Baltazar pointed to in the rules that affected her rights. Therefore, there was nothing in the rules that created more procedural unconscionability because they were not given to her.  

Substantive Unconscionability

The Court then turned to Baltazar's substantive unconscionability arguments.  Her first argument was that the arbitration agreement stated that either party could seek injunctive relief in accordance with the California Civil Procedure Code's section 1281.8.   Yes, she argued that the agreement was illegal because it included a statute's provision within it.   Bad argument?  Not when you consider that a previous court of appeal (Trivedi v. Curexo Technology Corp. (2010) 189 Cal.App.4th 387) had held just that.  The court in Trivedi held that a provision that simply stated that either party could seek injunctive relief was unconscionable because employers were more likely to use it.   Goodbye Trivedi.  The Supreme Court disapproved it.  It was on the books for 6 years too long.  

Baltazar also argued that the list of covered claims in the arbitration agreement was unconscionable because only employee-type claims were specifically mentioned.  Here's what the agreement said, as described by the Court:

The parties “mutually agree” to arbitrate “any claim or action arising out of or in any way related to the hire, employment, remuneration, separation or termination of Employee.” The agreement specifies that the disputes subject to arbitration “include but are not limited to: claims for wages or other compensation due; claims for breach of any employment contract or covenant (express or implied); claims for unlawful discrimination, retaliation or harassment . . . , and Disputes arising out of or relating to the termination of the employment relationship between the parties, whether based on common law or statute, regulation, or ordinance.”

The Court had no trouble finding that this language included all claims whether brought by the employer or employee:

The illustrative list of claims subject to the agreement is just that; the agreement specifically states that such claims “include but are not limited to” the enumerated claims, thus making clear that the list is not intended to be exhaustive. It thus casts no doubt on the comprehensive reach of the arbitration agreement. It is not particularly remarkable that the agreement’s list of examples might highlight certain types of claims that employees often bring, since part of the purpose of the agreement is to put employees such as Baltazar on notice regarding the scope of the agreement, thus eliminating any possible surprise.

Finally, Baltazar tried to argue that the agreement's provision protecting trade secrets and confidential information rendered the agreement unconscionable.  Again, the Court was not having it.

Baltazar argues that the arbitration agreement here is unduly one-sided because it provides that, in the course of arbitration, “all necessary steps will be taken to protect from public disclosure [Forever 21’s] trade secrets and proprietary and confidential information.” Baltazar contends that because the agreement neither defines “all necessary steps” nor specifies what constitutes “proprietary and confidential information,” the agreement unfairly demands that employees take whatever steps the employer deems “necessary” to protect whatever information the employer claims to be “proprietary and confidential.”

Baltazar misreads the confidentiality provision. Nothing in the agreement indicates that an employee must accede to any and all demands Forever 21 might make for the protection of confidential and proprietary information. As defendants explain: “This provision contemplates that if trade secret, confidential and proprietary information need[s] to be introduced into the arbitration that the parties [will] work with the arbitrator to make sure that such information is not disclosed to the public.” The agreement does not restrict the use of such information in the proceeding, nor does it pretermit any determination of whether a particular piece of information is a trade secret or otherwise qualifies as proprietary and confidential. Agreements to protect sensitive information are a regular feature of modern litigation, and they carry with them no inherent unfairness.

To the extent that Baltazar’s complaint is instead that the agreement calls for the protection of an employer’s confidential information without similarly calling for the protection of the confidential information of employees, we disagree with the suggestion that this omission renders the arbitration agreement unduly harsh or one-sided. As we stated in Armendariz, supra, 24 Cal.4th at page 117: “ ‘[A] contract can provide a “margin of safety” that provides the party with superior bargaining strength a type of extra protection for which it has a legitimate commercial need without being unconscionable. [Citation.]’ ” Here, the basis for the extra measure of protection is a legitimate commercial need to protect Forever 21’s “valuable trade secrets and proprietary and confidential information” from public disclosure. Although Baltazar may dislike the wording of the confidentiality provision, she does not dispute that it is based on a legitimate commercial need. Moreover, nothing in the agreement precludes employees from seeking comparable protection for their personal information during arbitration proceedings, as circumstances may warrant.

So, this case is another one that will make it easier to draft arbitration agreements without worrying about excessive false mutuality.   You know what I mean.

This case is Baltazar v. Forever 21, Inc. and the opinion is here. 

U.S. Supremes Enforce Arbitration Agreement, Reversing California Appellate Court

The U.S. Supreme Court in Direct TV Inc. v. Imburgia (opinion here) took on the California Court of Appeal in a test of the Federal Arbitration Act's preemptive force. Guess who won?

This case involves Direct TV's attempt to include a class-action waiver in an arbitration agreement as part of its service contract with customers.  Before the U.S. Supreme Court in AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion, 563 U. S. 333 (2011), ruled that such waivers were valid under the Federal Arbitration Act, state courts (like California's) could invalidate class actions waivers as "unconscionable" or invalid against public policy. See Discover Bank v. Superior Court, 36 Cal. 4th 148 (2005).

So, Direct TV inserted a provision in its arbitration agreement that hedged against the possibility of invalidation by a state court, as explained by the Supreme Court in its opinion:

if the “law of your state” makes the waiver of class arbitration unenforceable, then the entire arbitration provision “is unenforceable.” Id., at 129. Section 10 of the contract states that §9, the arbitration provision, “shall be governed by the Federal Arbitration Act.”

This way, if California held that a class waiver is invalid, the whole case (class action and all) would be heard in court. 

Then, of course, the U.S. Supreme Court decided a case that preempted California law invalidating class-action waivers.  Even the California Supreme Court had to agree that if the Federal Arbitration Act applies, class action waivers in arbitration agreements are OK.  Therefore, one might say, the "law of the state" about class-waivers was gone.  What happened to this clause then? Well that's what this case is about.

The Court of Appeal interpreted the above language to say that the "state law" would continue to apply without regard to federal preemption.  That is, the "law of your state" would continue to prohibit class action waivers under this agreement, despite the preemption of the law by the Supreme Court.  And, despite the arbitration agreement's specific provision that the Federal Arbitration Act applies. 

6-3, the Supreme Court rejected the Court of Appeal's decision.  The Court decided that for the Court of Appeal to be correct, the term "law of your state" had to include "invalid" state law.  The Court then decided that the Court of Appeal would never have interpreted the term "law of your state" to include "invalid" state law unless this contract were an arbitration agreement. Therefore, because the Court of Appeal disfavored arbitration agreements, its decision violated the Federal Arbitration Act. 

nothing in the Court of Appeal’s reasoning suggests that a California court would reach the same interpretation of “law of your state” in any context other than arbitration. The Court of Appeal did not explain why parties might generally intend the words “law of your state” to encompass “invalid law of your state.” To the contrary, the contract refers to “state law” that makes the waiver of class arbitration “unenforceable,” while an in- valid state law would not make a contractual provision unenforceable. Assuming—as we must—that the court’s reasoning is a correct statement as to the meaning of “law of your state” in this arbitration provision, we can find nothing in that opinion (nor in any other California case) suggesting that California would generally interpret words such as “law of your state” to include state laws held invalid because they conflict with, say, federal labor statutes, federal pension statutes, federal antidiscrimination laws, the Equal Protection Clause, or the like. 

And as for disfavoring arbitration:

The view that state law retains independent force even after it has been authoritatively invalidated by this Court is one courts are unlikely to accept as a general matter and to apply in other contexts.

Justice Thomas believes the Federal Arbitration Act does not preempt any case brought in state court and would have affirmed the court of appeal. So he dissented on that special ground. 

Justices Ginsburg (writing) joined by Justice Sotomayor dissented on the merits, arguing that  Direct TV should be held to its original intent: to enforce the agreement only if state law (without regard to federal preemption) would allow the class waiver. The agreement was written before the Supreme Court ruled class action waivers were allowed and state laws to the contrary were preempted; therefore, the agreement's intent was not to include federal law in the mix.  

So, another anti-arbitration case goes by the wayside. But California's anti-arbitration case law remains on the books and strong because Armendariz and its progeny are still in force.  Therefore, it remains important to draft arbitration agreements in employment settings carefully. 

California Court of Appeal Drives a Truck Through Federal Arbitration Act's Class Action Waiver Rule

If the Federal Arbitration Act applies, and it does to most employer-employee relationships, then it's settled that arbitration agreements may be limited to individual claims only.  That is, a class action waiver is enforceable under the Federal Arbitration Act.  And a silent agreement is considered to be limited to individual claims only.

What if the Federal Arbitration Act doesn't apply?  Then California law takes over.  And when California law applies, then California courts' deep abiding love for arbitration comes into play.
I kid.

The question then, is when the Federal Arbitration Act does not apply. One example is that the Act itself exempts:  “contracts of employment of seamen, railroad employees, or any other class of workers engaged in foreign or interstate commerce.”  At the turn of the century, the U.S. Supreme Court held that "workers engaged in commerce" was limited to transportation-type workers, not everyone in business. 

The U.S. Supremes have not yet decided what is a transportation-type worker.  Is it anyone who drives a truck  or vehicle across state lines as part of the job?  Or is it someone who is in the trucking business like a mover, bus driver, UPS, etc.?   

Well, that's what the Court of Appeal decided in Garrido v. Air Liquide Industrial U.S. LP.  

It seems Garrido filed a class action in state court, but signed an arbitration agreement containing a class action waiver. The agreement stated that the Federal Arbitration Act applied. But the superior court refused to enforce the class action waiver, even so.  That is because the trial court decided that even under the FAA the agreement would be invalid.  Of course, the trial court was wrong. if the FAA applied, the U.S. Supreme Court and the California Supreme Court both have held that a class action waiver is valid and enforceable. 

But the Court of Appeal decided that the FAA did not apply because Garrido's arbitration agreement was not covered by the FAA, as he was a "worker engaged in interstate commerce" by virtue of his job as a truck driver.    

Garrido’ s duty as a truck driver was the transportation of goods. Air Liquide cites to no authority holding that a truck driver whose responsibility is to move products across state lines does not fall under section 1 of the FAA. The fact that Garrido transported Air Liquide’s own products (rather than those of an Air Liquide client) is of little consequence: “a trucker is a transportation worker regardless of whether he transports his employer’s goods or the goods of a third party; if he crosses state lines he is ‘actually engaged in the movement of goods in interstate commerce.’” (International Brotherhood of Teamsters Local Union No. 50 v. Kienstra Precast, LLC (7th Cir. 2012) 702 F.3d 954, 957.)

Thus, because Garrido was a transportation worker, the FAA does not apply to the ADR agreement.

Once the FAA did not apply, then the issue was whether the class waiver was enforceable.  Without FAA preemption, the California case law is anti-class action waivers. The courts will invalidate class action waivers under Gentry v. Superior Court by applying a four-factor test:

In finding the ADR agreement’s class waiver provision unenforceable, the trial court applied Gentry’s four-factor test. As noted above, these four factors are: “[1] the modest size of the potential individual recovery, [2] the potential for retaliation against members of the class, [3] the fact that absent members of the class may be ill informed about their rights, and [4] other real world obstacles to the vindication of class members’ rights to overtime pay through individual arbitration.” (Gentry, supra, 42 Cal.4th at pp. 453, 463.) Under Gentry, if the trial court “concludes, based on these factors, that a class arbitration is likely to be a significantly more effective practical means of vindicating the rights of the affected employees than individual litigation or arbitration, and finds that the disallowance of the class action will likely lead to a less comprehensive enforcement of overtime laws for the employees alleged to be affected by the employer’s violations, it must invalidate the class arbitration waiver to ensure that these employees can ‘vindicate [their] unwaivable rights in an arbitration forum.’” (Ibid.)

The Court of Appeal held that the trial court properly applied that standard to hold that Garrido could maintain his class action in court because his class action waiver was unenforceable under California law. 

In this trucking case, there's little the employer could do. But if you are drafting an arbitration agreement or compelling arbitration, do your best to make sure the FAA applies.... or this could happen to you.

This opinion in Garrido is here. 

 

Court of Appeal: Incorporation of AAA Rules = Delegation to Arbitrator

In many employment arbitration agreements, the employer provides that the arbitration will be conducted under the employment dispute rules of the American Arbitration Association or AAA.  (The formal name of these rules is the National Rules for Resolution of Employment Disputes.)  Why?  These rules have been upheld as sufficiently benign to employee rights such that arbitration under those rules will be compelled.  And sometimes they're probably just included by default.

The Court of Appeal in Universal Protection Service LP v. Superior Court (opinion here) decided that the parties' arbitration agreement incorporating these rules meant that the arbitrator, rather than the court, had the power to decide whether class-wide arbitration was available.

UP employees sued the company based on wage-hour claims and termination-based claims in a purported class action. The employees sought to arbitrate the class action. UP sought to compel individual claims to arbitration. The trial court ordered the entire claim, class and all to arbitration and stayed the lawsuit, thereby leaving the decision on whether the class was arbitrable to the arbitrator.   UP sought relief from the Court of Appeal via writ of mandate.  UP wanted the appellate court to rule that only individual claims were arbitrable.

Here's what the arbitration clause said:

“I further expressly acknowledge and agree that, to the fullest extent allowed by law, any controversy, claim or dispute between me and the Company . . . relating to or arising out of my employment or the cessation of that employment will be submitted to final and binding arbitration before a neutral arbitrator . . . for determination in accordance with the American Arbitration Association’s [AAA] National Rules for the Resolution of Employment Disputes as the exclusive remedy for such controversy, claim or dispute.”

Given that incorporation of AAA rules, the Court of Appeal noted that the AAA employment dispute rules authorize the arbitrator to rule on the scope of the arbitration agreement:

Paragraph No. 6(a) of those rules provides: “The arbitrator shall have the power to rule on his or her own jurisdiction, including any objections with respect to the existence, scope, or validity of the arbitration agreement.”

The Court also noted that the AAA rules include supplemental rules governing purported classwide claims.

“Upon appointment, the arbitrator shall determine as a threshold matter, in a reasoned, partial final award on the construction of the arbitration clause, whether the applicable arbitration clause permits the arbitration to proceed on behalf of or against a class (the ‘Clause Construction Award’). The arbitrator shall stay all proceedings following the issuance of the Clause Construction Award for a period of at least 30 days to permit any party to move a court of competent jurisdiction to confirm or to vacate the Clause Construction Award.”

Having found these provisions were included in the parties' agreement to arbitrate, the Court decided that the Arbitrator had the power to rule on whether the arbitration would include class-based claims.

Employers of course may mandate individual employees to arbitrate their individual claims (excluding PAGA claims).  Employers also may exclude class-based claims from arbitration.   Employers may do so expressly, which is legal.

The parties to an arbitration agreement may agree to have courts rule on arbitrability of class claims or may agree on having an arbitrator do so.  This decision simply says that incorporating the AAA employment rules means that the parties elected the arbitrator as the decider of this critical issue.  Not that there's anything wrong with that.

California Supreme Court Upholds California's Tough Arbitration Jurisprudence Again, Mostly

In a non-employment decision, the California Supreme Court held the following:

1.  The U.S. Supreme Court's decision in AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion requires the Court to uphold a waiver of class actions in a consumer arbitration agreement (this one within an auto-sales contract). This is not news, as the California Supreme Court already recognized this rule in a prior case, which was decided while this one was pending.

2.  SCOTUS's Concepcion case permits California to continue to apply an "unconscionability" defense to arbitration agreements under state law, provided the courts do not single out arbitration contracts for disfavored treatment.  However, the Court, perhaps subtly, is putting some brakes on how courts may apply the doctrine of "unconscionability" to invalidate arbitration agreements.

This case involved a contract between a consumer and car dealership over the sale of a luxury car. So,  not an employment case. We will have to wait some more for the courts of appeal to apply this decision, Sanchez v. Valencia Holdings LLC, to employment agreements. I think there will be a relaxation of the unconscionability standard, but not enough to allow significant changes to employers' arbitration contracts.

The language of the arbitration agreement is not entirely transferable to employment agreements. But some of the provisions may allow employers to include provisions that previously had been struck down as "unconscionable."

Justice Liu penned the 6-1 opinion.  Justice Liu does not provide a lot of concrete standards for what is going to be considered "unconscionable."  For example, as Justice Chin, concurring and dissenting, points out, the majority simply refuses to announce one formal standard for what counts as "unconscionable."  Does a contract have to "shock the conscience" or must it be simply too one-sided that it's too unfair to the other side?

The standard the court distills is quite mushy and guarantees continued litigation over unconscionability:

The ultimate issue in every case is whether the terms of the contract are sufficiently unfair, in view of all relevant circumstances, that a court should withhold enforcement.

Nevertheless, the Court set forth a definition of unconscionable that appears to signal that courts should not be too eager to strike down terms that they feel are simply unfair:

that unconscionability doctrine is concerned not with ‗a simple old-fashioned bad bargain‘ (Schnuerle v. Insight Communications Co. (Ky. 2012) 376 S.W.3d 561, 575 (Schnuerle)), but with terms that are ‗unreasonably favorable to the more powerful party‘ (8 Williston on Contracts (4th ed. 2010) § 18.10, p. 91). These include ‗terms that impair the integrity of the bargaining process or otherwise contravene the public interest or public policy; terms (usually of an adhesion or boilerplate nature) that attempt to alter in an impermissible manner fundamental duties otherwise imposed by the law, fine-print terms, or provisions that seek to negate the reasonable expectations of the nondrafting party, or unreasonably and unexpectedly harsh terms having to do with price or other central aspects of the transaction.‘ (Ibid.)‖ (Sonic II, supra, 57 Cal.4th at p. 1145.) Because unconscionability is a contract defense, the party asserting the defense bears the burden of proof. (Id. at p. 1148.

* * *

unconscionability requires a substantial degree of unfairness beyond ‘a simple old-fashioned bad bargain.’ (Id. at p. 1160, italics added.) This latter qualification is important. Commerce depends on the enforceability, in most instances, of a duly executed written contract. A party cannot avoid a contractual obligation merely by complaining that the deal, in retrospect, was unfair or a bad bargain. Not all one-sided contract provisions are unconscionable; hence the various intensifiers in our formulations: ―overly harsh,―unduly oppressive,―unreasonably favorable. (See Pinnacle, supra, 55 Cal.4th at p. 246 [―A contract term is not substantively unconscionable when it merely gives one side a greater benefit . . . .].)

The Court also made clear that it wants to avoid federal intervention be emphasizing that courts may not single out arbitration agreements for more scrutiny than other contracts.

our unconscionability standard is, as it must be, the same for arbitration and nonarbitration agreements. (Concepcion, supra, 563 U.S. at p. __ [131 S.Ct. at p. 1747].) Of course, unconscionability can manifest itself in different ways, depending on the contract term at issue. (See, e.g., Washington Mutual Bank v. Superior Court (2001) 24 Cal.4th 906, 916–917 [choice of law clause]); City of Santa Barbara v. Superior Court (2007) 41 Cal.4th 747, 777 [waivers of liability provision]); Moreno v. Sanchez (2003) 106 Cal.App.4th 1415, 1434 [statutes of limitation provision]; Smith, Valentino & Smith, Inc. v. Superior Court (1976) 17 Cal.3d 491, 495–496 [forum selection clause].) But the application of unconscionability doctrine to an arbitration clause must proceed from general principles that apply to any contract clause. In particular, the standard for substantive unconscionability — the requisite degree of unfairness beyond merely a bad bargain — must be as rigorous and demanding for arbitration clauses as for any contract clause.

Here are a few issues the Court addressed that can help employers' arbitration agreements:

1. The Court made clear that there is no obligation to set an arbitration provision apart from other contractual provisions or call it to the consumer's attention.

2. The Court also does not have lot of sympathy for the argument that the consumer did not read the contract or that it was buried under a lot of other papers, which employees often argue.

3. The Court upheld a provision where the plaintiff could appeal a $0 award to a panel of 3 arbitrators, and the defendant could appeal if the award exceeded $100,000.  Therefore, provisions do not have to be 100% mirror image, which some lower courts have insisted on.

4.  Along the same lines, the Court said that requiring the plaintiff to bear the expenses of the appeal was not unconscionable because the plaintiff did not prove he was unable to bear that cost.  However, this case arose under a different statutory scheme than applies to employment disputes.  So, employers should continue to bear any "type" of cost that is not incurred in court.

5. On the mirror-image "mutuality" issue, the Court said that a provision exempting "self help" such as repossession was OK because of the car dealer's legitimate business needs to repossess cars, and because the agreement exempted small claims cases, which benefited the consumer. Trade-offs, therefore, may save unconscionable provisions.  Caution, though, because the Court in part based its decision on the fact that "self-help" itself is outside of litigation, so it was naturally something that need not be arbitrated.   If the lower courts run with this, employers may be able to "carve out" some issues from arbitration - like intellectual property - if they carve out other claims that favor employees - like expense reimbursements maybe, for example?  We shall see.

To sum up, the Supreme Court upheld the business's agreement. But it did not set forth clear standards on unconscionability. It may have relaxed the law of unconscionability a bit, but it did not hold that Concepcion guts California's (de facto) tough stance on arbitration agreements.

This case is not a blockbuster for employers or employees.  It remains to be seen whether the employer or employee will try for U.S. Supreme Court review.

The court system in California is still under water. It can take a long time to get to trial. Judges are worked hard, and may not give your case the attention you think it deserves.  So, arbitration can be quicker, which can cut down on defense costs.  On the other hand, the cost of the arbitrator and administration can be expensive.  And arbitrators are not afraid to issue large awards when they find cause to do so.  So, arbitration is a yellow light, before and after Sanchez.  Nothing in this case changes that view for me.   Just my 0.02. YMMV.  YOLO.  [Insert cliche].

Sanchez v. Valencia Holdings LLC is here.

Court of Appeal Holds Truckers Entitled to Hearing on Whether Federal Arbitration Act Applies

The Federal Arbitration Act preempts state law that would preclude arbitration of claims. California has such a law, which prohibits arbitration of wage claims.  See Lab. Code section 229.  So, if the FAA applies, it preempts that law. The U.S. Supreme Court has so held. 

The FAA contains an exemption, however.  Per the court of appeal:

Specifically, section 1 provides (in relevant part) that nothing in the FAA “shall apply to contracts of employment of seamen, railroad employees, or any other class of workers engaged in foreign or interstate commerce.” (9 U.S.C. § 1.) The United States Supreme Court interpreted this language in Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams (2001) 532 U.S. 105 [121 S.Ct. 1302, 149 L.Ed.2d 234], reversing the lower court’s ruling that had held the section 1 exemption from the FAA applicable to all contracts of employment. The better reading of the law, the Supreme Court held, is that Section 1 exempts only “contracts of employment of transportation workers”—meaning “workers actually engaged in the movement of goods in interstate commerce.” (Id. at pp. 106, 112, 119.)

In this case, the plaintiffs are truckers, who claimed they were mis-classified as independent contractors.  The trial court did not hold a hearing on whether the FAA applied to them.  The plaintiffs argued they had "contracts of employment" and were "transportation workers" in interstate commerce.

To have  "contracts of employment," possibly falling outside the FAA's coverage, the truckers would have to be "employees," not independent contractors.  But the trial court would not consider that argument, and instead focused on whether the agreements were unconscionable.

The court of appeal decided that the trial court should have held a hearing regarding the applicability of the FAA, because if it did not apply, the truckers could not be compelled to arbitrate their wage-hour claims.

Petitioners were (and are) entitled to the court’s determination whether their agreements are contracts of employment for transportation workers engaged in interstate commerce, within the meaning of the FAA’s section 1 exemption as interpreted by the Supreme Court in Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, supra, 532 U.S. 105. That law, if it applies, would exempt their agreements from the FAA’s requirement that their arbitration agreements must be enforced. There is a strong policy in favor of enforcing agreements to arbitrate, and under the FAA. “‘Questions of arbitrability must be addressed with a healthy regard for the federal policy favoring arbitration.’” (Armijo v. Prudential Ins. Co. of America (10th Cir. 1995) 72 F.3d 793, 797, quoting Mitsubishi Motors Corp. v. Soler Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc. (1985) 473 U.S. 614, 626 [105 S.Ct. 3346, 87 L.Ed.2d 444]; see also Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp., supra, 460 U.S. at p. 25 [103 S.Ct. 927, 74 L.Ed.2d 765].) Nevertheless, “there is no policy compelling persons to accept arbitration of controversies . . . which no statute has made arbitrable.” (Freeman v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. (1975) 14 Cal.3d 473, 481.)

This case applies only to transportation workers.  However, it also reminds us to ensure that one cannot take the applicability of the FAA for granted when filing Petitions to compel arbitration. 

This case is Garcia v. Superior Court and the opinion is here.

Ninth Circuit Upholds Dispute Resolution Policy in Handbook As Enforceable Arbitration Agreement

Especially in California, an arbitration agreement practically has to be written in pencil. Getting an arbitration agreement to conform with all the new court decisions feels like nailing jello to a wall. Herding cats.  Hitting a moving target.  You get the picture.

So, from an administrative standpoint, it's much easier to have an arbitration agreement that can be amended from time to time and simply distributed via handbook revision, along with an acknowledgment of receipt.  There are limits on doing so, such as adequate notice of a change and the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing that would apply to any contract. 

But some may question whether a policy in a handbook is an enforceable "agreement" to arbitrate at all.  The Ninth Circuit thought so in Ashbey v. Archstone Prop. Mgmt.  Opinion here.

Ashbey signed the following acknowledgement (at least twice) during his employment.

I acknowledge that I have received directions as to how I may access the Archstone Company Policy Manual, including the Dispute Resolution Policy. I understand that Archstone can administer, interpret, discontinue, supplement, amend or withdraw any of the employment and personnel policies and procedures set forth in this Company Policy Manual. I understand that it is my responsibility to understand the Archstone Company Policy Manual, including the Dispute Resolution Policy, and to adhere to all of the policies contained herein.

The Dispute Resolution Policy stated:

This Policy is governed by the Federal Arbitration Act, 9 U.S.C. § 1 et seq. . . . Except as it otherwise provides, this Policy is intended to apply to the resolution of disputes that otherwise would be resolved in a court of law, and therefore this Policy requires all such disputes between Employee and the Company to be resolved only by an arbitrator through final and binding arbitration and not by way of court or jury trial. . . . This Policy also applies, without limitation, to disputes arising out of the employment relationship or the termination thereof including, without limitation, disputes over . . . harassment and claims arising under the . . . Civil Rights Act of 1964 . . . and all other state statutory and common law claims. 

Ashley argued that the acknowledgment and policy were ineffective to waive his right to a jury trial on his federal Title VII claim and analogous state law claim for discrimination. He claimed that his waiver was not knowing and voluntary because the receipt did not contain the Dispute Resolution policy. The court of appeals disagreed:

the Acknowledgment here explicitly notified Ashbey the Manual contained a Dispute Resolution Policy, and it did so in two places. And Ashbey expressly agreed “to adhere” to the Manual and the Dispute Resolution Policy. That the Acknowledgment did not list the terms of the Policy is not fatal to the Policy’s enforcement. The full text of the Policy was at Ashbey’s fingertips; he acknowledged he had received directions on how to access both the Manual and the Dispute Resolution Policy contained in the Manual. Anyone who reviewed the Dispute Resolution Policy would immediately realize he was “entering into an agreement to waive a specific statutory remedy afforded him by a civil rights statute.” Nelson, 119 F.3d at 762. The Dispute Resolution Policy was not ambiguous on that point: (1) the policy stated it “is governed by the Federal Arbitration Act”; (2) the policy stated that “all . . . disputes between Employee and the Company [are] to be resolved only by an arbitrator through final and binding arbitration and not by way of court or jury trial”; and (3) the policy stated it “applies, without limitation, to disputes arising out of the employment relationship . . . including, without limitation, disputes over . . . harassment and claims arising under the . . . Civil Rights Act of 1964.”

So, the Court held that the policy was knowing and voluntary.  

In a companion, unpublished decision, the court also held that the policy contained in the handbook was enforceable as an agreement under California unconscionability law.  The court noted that policies can be enforceable as contracts, even when incorporated into the signed acknowledgment.  The court also found that the attorney's fees and other provisions were satisfactory. 

The analysis relies on California opinions and is useful for crafting these types of arbitration agreements. So, although unpublished, it will be useful.  That unpublished opinion is here. 

Court of Appeal Finds Insufficient Evidence Attributing Electronic Signature to Employee

Employers increasingly rely on electronic acknowledgements of policies and procedures.  An "electronic signature" is valid under California law.  But the reason those signatures exist is so that employers can prove the employee read and signed the document.  That's what Moss Bros. Auto found out in a recent case.

The document was an arbitration agreement, which Moss Bros. claimed that its employee, Ruiz, signed.  However, Ruiz claimed he did not "remember" signing it.  So, Moss Bros. had to establish that he did when it moved to compel Ruiz to arbitrate his wage-hour claims.

Moss Bros. adduced the declaration of its business manager, Mary K. Main, who was “required to be familiar with the generation and maintenance” of employee personnel records. Main summarily asserted that Ruiz “electronically signed” the 2011 agreement “on or about September 21, 2011,” and that the same agreement was presented to “all persons who seek or seek to maintain employment” with Moss Bros. or its affiliated dealerships and service/parts centers. Main did not explain how Moss Bros. verified that Ruiz, or other Moss Bros. employees, electronically signed the 2011 agreement. 

The 2011 agreement is just over two pages in length. “Ernesto Zamora Ruiz” appears in print on the first page, under the title, “Employee Acknowledgment and Agreement,” and the phrases “Ernesto Zamora Ruiz (Electronic Signature)” and “9/21/2011 11:47:27 AM” appear in print on the third page, under the signature and date lines of the 2011 agreement. 

In a supplemental declaration, Main testified that Ruiz had to log in using a unique user name and password. 

The court of appeal decided that was not enough because Main did not "authenticate" the electronic signature.  here is the standard for doing so:

Civil Code section 1633.9 addresses how a proponent of an electronic signature may authenticate the signature—that is, show the signature is, in fact, the signature of the person the proponent claims it is. The statute states: “(a) An electronic record or electronic signature is attributable to a person if it was the act of the person. The act of the person may be shown in any manner, including a showing of the efficacy of any security procedure applied to determine the person to which the electronic record or electronic signature was attributable.” (Civ. Code, § 1633.9, subd. (a), italics added.) 

Here, the court found that Main's testimony about the general procedures applicable to electronically signing the arbitration agreement was insufficient.  The court provided some hints as to what would have been enough:

Main did not explain that an electronic signature in the name of “Ernesto Zamora Ruiz” could only have been placed on the 2011 agreement (i.e., on the Employee Acknowledgement form) by a person using Ruiz’s “unique login ID and password”; that the date and time printed next to the electronic signature indicated the date and time the electronic signature was made; that all Moss Bros. employees were required to use their unique login ID and password when they logged into the HR system and signed electronic forms and agreements; and the electronic signature on the 2011 agreement was, therefore, apparently made by Ruiz on September 21, 2011, at 11:47 a.m. Rather than offer this or any other explanation of how she inferred the electronic signature on the 2011 agreement was the act of Ruiz, Main only offered her unsupported assertion that Ruiz was the person who electronically signed the 2011 agreement. In the face of Ruiz’s failure to recall electronically signing the 2011 agreement, the fact the 2011 agreement had an electronic signature on it in the name of Ruiz, and a date and time stamp for the signature, was insufficient to support a finding that the electronic signature was, in fact, “the act of” Ruiz. (Civ. Code, § 1633.9, subd. (a).) For the same reason, the evidence was insufficient to support a finding that the electronic signature was what Moss Bros. claimed it was: the electronic signature of Ruiz. (Evid. Code, § 1400, cl. (a).) This was not a difficult evidentiary burden to meet, but it was not met here. 

As a result, the court found there was insufficient evidence of an agreement to arbitrate and upheld the trial court's denial of Moss Bros.'s petition to compel arbitration.

Yes, it may be that Moss Bros. failed to compel Ruiz to arbitrate due to a poorly drafted declaration, rather than some flaw in the electronic signing protocol.  But litigators need proof that an employee signed handbook acknowledgements, training attendance forms, etc. Although an arbitration agreement was involved here, this decision applies to all sorts of electronically signed documents.  The average manager has no idea how the electronic signing process works, cannot testify that he or she actually saw the employee at the computer electronically signing, etc.

Therefore, when implementing electronic versions of documents, employers must have their IT professionals build in ways to do so.  For example, there could be an acknowledgment email sent to the employee, with a copy to the employer.  Or  the IT management could create a step-by-step explanation of how the system ensures that the  name appearing on the electronic application is attributable to the actual person and not merely inserted later. 

This case is Ruiz v. Moss Bros. Auto and the decision is here.

CA Supreme Court: Employer Lawfully Fired Employee on CFRA Leave Who Violated Employer's Policy

The California Supreme Court did not decide whether an employer's "honest belief" that an employee is misusing family or medical leave is a defense to a claim against an employer for violating the California Family Rights Act.  Instead, the Court decided whether a court had the power to vacate an arbitrator's decision because the arbitrator's ruling adopted the "honest belief" defense.  BUT, if you get through the arbitration portion of this post, you'll see that the high Court announced an important rule regarding CFRA leave. 

First, arbitrators' decisions generally are NOT reviewable for legal error, because arbitration is supposed to be quick and less expensive than litigation. But a few years ago, the California Supreme Court carved out an exception for statutory claims based on "unwaivable" rights (such as the Fair Employment and Housing Act, or the California Family Rights Act).  The Court held in Pearson Dental Supply v. Superior Court (my post is here.) that an appellate court may vacate an arbitration award when the arbitrator's legal error denies the plaintiff a hearing. 

In the present case, Richey v. Autonation, the Supreme Court held that the court of appeal did NOT have the power to vacate an arbitrator's decision that Automation lawfully fired Richey, based on its honest belief that Richey was abusing CFRA leave. Regardless of whether the honest belief defense is valid in California, the arbitrator's decision is unreviewable for that kind of claimed legal error.

The error addressed in Pearson Dental therefore kept the parties from receiving a review on the merits. Its narrow rule was sufficient to resolve the case. (Ibid.) Plaintiff here has not advocated for a greater scope of judicial review in cases involving unwaivable statutory rights, and thus, there is no reason to go beyond the framework Pearson Dental established.

But that's only half the story.

The Court also ruled that even if the arbitrator relied on the "honest belief" defense erroneously, Richey would have lost anyway.  That is because, the Court found, Automation justifiably fired Richey while he was on CFRA leave, because Richey violated Automation's policy prohibiting work during CFRA leave:

Even if the arbitrator erred, and even if such an error could serve as a basis for vacating an arbitration award, plaintiff has not shown that the error was prejudicial.  

Here, the arbitrator found plaintiff was fired because he violated Power Toyota‘s employment policy against outside work while on approved CFRA medical leave, not because he was on approved leave. 3 The evidence to support that finding, as reflected in the arbitrator‘s factual findings, was overwhelming. Power Toyota explicitly warned plaintiff that its policy prohibited any outside employment, including self-employment, while on leave. Plaintiff knowingly ignored the warnings. Power Toyota invited plaintiff to communicate regarding his outside employment, and he deliberately avoided any such communication. ***

[P]laintiff blatantly ignored his superiors‘ clear instructions not to work at the restaurant while on CFRA leave. To ignore this fact and to hold that Power Toyota could not have fired plaintiff under any circumstances for violating company policy while on leave would ignore the rule that plaintiff had ―no greater right to reinstatement or to other benefits and conditions of employment than if [he] had been continuously employed‖ during the statutory leave period. (29 C.F.R. § 825.216(a).)

The arbitrator found plaintiff‘s firing was based on a clear violation of company policy — a legally sound basis for upholding the arbitrator‘s award — and would likely have made that finding regardless of the evidence or findings as to the employer‘s honest belief plaintiff was misrepresenting his medical condition. 

So, you thought it was an arbitration case, but it's really a very significant CFRA case.  Richey v. Automation is here.

A Pot Pourri of Recent Employment Law Decisions

Here are some recent significant California employment law developments I missed. Long post, but chock full of employment law goodness. Or something:

Employer's Summary Judgment on Disability Discrimination and Related Claims
The court of appeal in Swanson v. Morongo Unified School District (opinion here) reversed summary judgment in favor of the school district.

Swanson was a teacher who was treated with breast cancer.  The school district voted not to renew her contract based on her performance.  Swanson believed the district's vote was based on her cancer and treatment.  She also claimed that the district failed to accommodate her by refusing to allow her to teach a second grade class rather than the assignment they gave her, and failed to adequately engage in the "interactive process."

On the discrimination claim, the court of appeal acknowledged the district demonstrated Swanson's poor performance as a legitimate reason.  That shifted the burden to Swanson to raise a triable issue of fact regarding whether discrimination motivated the district, rather than performance. Here is the pretext analysis:

Swanson had to present evidence showing (1) the District’s stated reason for not renewing her contract was untrue or pretextual; (2) the District acted with a discriminatory animus in not renewing her contract; or (3) a combination of the two. *** We conclude Swanson met this burden by presenting evidence establishing a triable issue of fact on whether the District intentionally discriminated against her when making its teaching assignments and its treatment of her after her cancer diagnosis and medical leaves. ***We conclude Swanson met this burden by presenting evidence establishing a triable issue of fact on whether the District intentionally discriminated against her when making its teaching assignments and its treatment of her after her cancer diagnosis and medical leaves. 

Here's the evidence the court found significant:

The evidence the parties presented establishes the following disputed facts creating a triable issue on Swanson’s liability theory: (1) Swanson performed well in the teaching assignments she held during her first two years with the District, but the District gave her a new teaching assignment for the first full school year after she completed her cancer treatments; (2) the District gave Swanson the new assignment knowing it would require her to spend additional time planning and preparing to teach her new class and Swanson’s weakened health condition impaired her ability to do so; (3) the District denied Swanson’s request to teach a second grade class similar to one she recently had taught at her previous school, and instead assigned the available second grade class to another teacher; (4) the District assigned Swanson to teach a kindergarten class even though she had not taught kindergarten in nearly 30 years and expressed concern her weakened immune system could not protect her from the many illnesses prevalent in kindergarten classes; (5) although promising to do so, Lowe did not provide Swanson the preevaluation format she needed to prepare for her first series of teacher observations; (6) the District did not provide Swanson the mentor teacher she requested after receiving the remediation plan or any of the other training or assistance she requested; (7) Lowe told Swanson the District wanted him to make a determination on her employment status before he had time to complete the second series of teacher observations; (8) Lowe asked Swanson to resign her teaching position even though he gave her a positive review on the first teaching observation following the remediation plan and implied her review on the second observation also would be positive; and (9) the District’s Board of Education voted not to renew Swanson’s contract before she completed the remediation plan and all of the observations were conducted.

This is to say that the court of appeal felt that a jury should decide whether the district's personnel actions against Swanson that led to her poor performance were motivated by her disability. Therefore, to win these cases, the employer should show on summary judgment that it treated the plaintiff the same as the other, similarly situated, employees.

On the failure to accommodate claim, the plaintiff claimed she would have been able to perform her essential job functions if she was assigned to teach a second grade class, rather than the kindergarten class she was assigned. Although the district showed the court several accommodations it provided, the court was unpersuaded that the district was entitled to summary judgment:

Swanson does not claim the District failed to grant her leave or any other scheduling accommodation. Instead, she alleges the District failed to reasonably accommodate her cancer-related conditions because it refused to provide her the accommodation she sought after the District decided to move her out of the reading specialist position she held during the 2007/2008 school year. Specifically, she alleges the District refused her request to teach an available second grade class. According to Swanson, the second grade class assignment was a reasonable accommodation that would allow her to perform her essential job functions because she recently had taught a second grade class when working in another district, and therefore was familiar with the curriculum and children of that age. Swanson alleged any other new teaching assignment would require additional time to prepare and plan lessons, but the effect of her cancer treatments jeopardized her ability to prepare for her new assignment. 

         *  *  *

To meet its initial burden on Swanson’s failure to accommodate claims, the District therefore had to present evidence showing the second grade position Swanson sought was not available or otherwise was not a reasonable accommodation, or the fifth grade or kindergarten assignments the District offered were reasonable accommodations that would have allowed Swanson to adequately perform her essential job functions. The District produced no such evidence. 

The court also held that the district did not adequately engage in the interactive process to determine an accommodation:

The District contends Swanson’s interactive process claims fail because it engaged in the interactive process by switching her from fifth grade to kindergarten when she objected to the fifth grade assignment. That contention is not adequate to satisfy the District’s initial burden on summary judgment. The FEHA required the District to engage in an ongoing dialogue regarding the accommodations Swanson believed she needed to mitigate her cancer-related conditions, but the District failed to present any evidence to show it engaged Swanson in such a dialogue. For example, the District offers no evidence to show it discussed with Swanson the second grade assignment she sought or provided any explanation why it could not grant her request as a reasonable accommodation. To the contrary, the evidence shows the District simply assigned Swanson to teach kindergarten and failed to engage in any further discussion with her. Accordingly, the trial court erred in granting summary judgment on the interactive process claims. 

Arbitration Compelled Even Though Insufficient Proof Unsigned Arbitration Policy Was in Effect

Stephanie Cruise signed an employment application with Kroger Corporation, in which she agreed to mandatory, final, binding arbitration. The application referenced a separate mediation and arbitration policy, which was "incorporated by reference."  After her termination, Cruise sued Kroger. Kroger moved to compel arbitration. The trial court denied the motion, holding that Kroger had not proved that Cruise had received the arbitration policy, or that the one attached to the motion was the one she had allegedly received.

The court of appeal reversed the trial court and ordered arbitration. The court held that the following language in the application "eliminate[d]" Cruise's argument there was no agreement to arbitrate:

“MANDATORY FINAL & BINDING ARBITRATION: I acknowledge and understand that the Company has a Dispute Resolution Program that includes a Mediation & Binding Arbitration Policy (the ‘Policy’) applicable to all employees and applicants for employment . . . . I acknowledge, understand and agree that the Policy is incorporated into this Employment Application by this reference as though it is set forth in full, . . . the Policy applies to any employment-related disputes that exist or arise between Employees and the Company . . . and that the Policy requires that any Employee who wishes to initiate or participate in formal proceedings to resolve any Covered Disputes must submit the claims or disputes to final and binding arbitration in accordance with the Policy.” (Italics added.)

The court rejected Cruise's argument that the employer did not sign the application, reasoning that the employer submitted the application to Cruise of signature, and that it was Kroger's own application, after all.

BUT, what of the policy?  The court of appeal accepted the trial court's conclusion that the employer had not established the existence of the policy, which governed the terms and procedures re arbitration. The court of appeal, however, ruled that Cruise was still obligated to arbitrate, only under the California Arbitration Act.

The only impact of Kroger‟s inability to establish the contents of the 2007 Arbitration Policy is that Kroger failed to establish that the parties agreed to govern their arbitration by procedures different from those prescribed in the CAA (§ 1280 et seq.). Unless the parties otherwise agree, the conduct of an arbitration proceeding is controlled by the CAA. (See, e.g., §§ 1281.6, 1282, 1282.2.) Here, because Kroger failed to establish an agreement to the contrary, the instant arbitration proceeding is to be governed by the procedures set forth in the CAA. Because this arbitration is controlled by California statutory and case law, Cruise‟s arguments that Kroger‟s Arbitration Policy is unconscionable, both procedurally and substantively, are meritless.

If this case remains good law, then (1) employers can include clear agreements to arbitrate in applications and (2) they can rely on the California Arbitration Act rather than prescribe specific procedures.

This case is Cruise v. Kroger Co .and the opinion is here.

                                                                 * * *
Here are some narrow decisions, but which may contain helpful holdings for other cases.

LA Hotel Service Charge Ordinance - Class Action - UCL Claim 

The court of appeal in Audio Visual Services Group, Inc. v. Superior Court opinion here, handled a narrow issue: whether Los Angeles's Hotel Service Charge Reform Ordinance applied to third party employees who do not traditionally depend on tips.  The Ordinance requires certain hotels to pay certain employees all service charges added to customers bills.  The Audio Visual employees provided AV services to hotels, for which they charged a fee plus a service charge. The plaintiffs sued, claiming they were owed that service charge. The Court of Appeal issued a writ, sustaining the employer's demurrer to the class complaint (extraordinary in and of itself). The court of appeal decided that the ordinance does not apply to Audio Visual's employees.  Of note, the court clearly held that the employees "unfair competition claim" under Business and Professions Code section 17200 was not actionable because the statutory claim also was without merit. So, this case can help in other UCL actions. Money quote:

In light of our construction of the Ordinance that Solares, an audio-visual technician, is not among the class of hotel workers entitled to be paid service charges pursuant to the Ordinance, Solares cannot assert a UCL claim against PSAV. Business and Professions Code section 17200 defines “unfair competition” as “any unlawful, unfair or fraudulent business act or practice and unfair, deceptive, untrue or misleading advertising and any act prohibited by Chapter 1 (commencing with [Business and Professions Code ] Section 17500) of Part 3 of Division 7 of the Business and Professions Code.” The UCL claim is dependent upon a violation of the Ordinance. Thus, the class action complaint failed to state a cause of action.

U.S. Supreme Court: Whistle Blower Under Homeland Security Act Protected

Department of Homeland Security v. MacLean (opinion here)  involves an Air Marshall who reported  to MSNBC that the TSA had canceled Air Marshall missions during a time when there was a heightened security alert regarding possible Al Qaeda highjackings.  He had been told that TSA canceled missions to save money.  After MacLean made the disclosure, TSA reversed its position under pressure from Congress.

The TSA discovered MacLean was the leaker and fired him in 2006.  He sued for whistleblower retaliation. TSA argued that MacLean's disclosure was "specifically prohibited" by its regulation, which was as good as "law." TSA had issued regulations prohibiting disclosure of what they called "sensitive security information." That information could include "information concerning specific numbers of Federal Air Marshals, deployments or missions, and the methods involved in such operations.”

Federal law generally provides whistleblower protections to an employee who discloses information revealing “any violation of any law, rule, or regulation,” or “a substantial and specific danger to public health or safety.” 5 U. S. C. §2302(b)(8)(A). An exception exists, however, for disclosures that are “specifically prohibited by law.”

So, the question for the Court was whether MacLean's disclosure was prohibited by law.  The Court held (7-2) that the statute's use of "specifically prohibited by law" meant statutory law, rather than regulations.  The Court reasoned that Congress had used "law, rule or regulation" throughout the whistleblower law, but limited the disclosure exception only to "law."